ISRAEL:

At present, there are nine LTER sites in Israel.= In the early 1990s, when the Israeli LTER was established, there were only two sit= es, Lehavim and Sayeret Shaked. The aims of the two sites between 1990 and 2004 were to study and develop ecosystem management of drylands. The approach was based on integration and application of ecological models of water limited systems. After six years’ operation of this project (1990-1996), investigators recognized the need for a national perspective on how dryland ecosystems are affected by management activities. As a consequence, in 1997= the Jewish National Fund (JNF), Ben-Gurion University of the Negev (BGU) and the Agricultural Research Organization-Volcani Center (ARO), established the Dryland Ecosystem-management Network (DEN), a national network of sites for research and monitoring of the short- and long-term effects of drylands management on ecosystem function and ecosystem services. The main objective= of the project was to investigate population, community, ecosystem and landsca= pe responses on local and regional scales to: a) interactions among organisms,= b) variations in water and nutrient availability, c) landscape dynamics, and d) environmental changes induced by management. The DEN project was later exte= nded into a larger project (MARAG, in Hebrew “The Web”) that includes five sites, functioning as a network, with another three being considered f= or inclusion in the research in the near future.

The MARAG project takes biodiversity and productivity patterns along a rainfall gradient in Israel as its main themes. Th= e aim is to investigate how woody vegetation modulates the landscape by creating patchiness and thus changes community structure, diversity and productivity. By changing the patch mosaics and resource distribution, this modulation determines which species can filter into the landscape from the regional species pool. The outcome is a landscape quite different in its community structure and ecosystem function from one without woody vegetatio= n.

Along the rainfall gradient of Israel = the climate changes dramatically from arid (90 mm annual rain) to Mediterranean (900 mm annual rain). This results in ecosystems that differ = in many of their ecological attributes, such as primary productivity, identity= of woody vegetation, its density and spatial arrangement and regional species pool. The interaction between these attributes determines how woody vegetat= ion affects biodiversity and ecosystem function along the rainfall gradient.

The effect of woody vegetation on biodiversi= ty and ecosystem function is studied in the Israeli LTER sites situated along this gradient. In each site we study how patch modification affects filtering of species from the regional species to the patch assembly and its effects on = the system. The composition of woody vegetation alters from oak tree species in= the north to Hamada shrubs in the south, and percent plant cover also changes. The woody vegetation pattern formation and filtering are expected = to be very different in the different sites. However, the sites are studied as= a network in order to identify patterns in biodiversity and productivity along the rainfall gradient.

The MARAG project was funded by the Israel S= cience Foundation, the Israel Nature & Parks Authority (INPA), the Israel Mini= stry of Science & Technology, Jewish National Fund (JNF) and the M^cDonnell Foundation. Researchers from various institutions are involved in this research. Participating institutions include Ben= -Gurion University of the Negev (BGU), <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Haifa University, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI), Technion – Israel Institut= e of Technology, Agricultural Research Organization – Volcani Center (ARO), INPA, Yad Hanadiv Foundation.

The MARAG network is headed by Prof. Moshe S= hachak and a steering committee which includes Dr. Yehoshua Shkedy and Prof Avi Perevolotzky. The central office of the MARAG is at the Blaustein Institute= s of Desert Research at BGU.

Within the MARAG network the following taxa = are studied: plants, springtails, beetles, grasshoppers, spiders and microorganisms. Each site has a site manager who oversees the plant research (Avdat – Dr. Bert Boeken; Lehavim – Dr. Eugene Ungar; Adulam – Dr. Yariv Malichi; Ramat Hanadiv – Prof. Avi Perevolotzky; Me= ron – Prof. Gidi Ne’eman), while the animal research is organized by Prof. Yael Lubin (BGU) and Dr. Elli Groner (BGU). The microorganism researc= h is headed by Dr. Osnat Gillor (BGU).

To ensure that the study is networked, at ea= ch site species diversity of the chosen taxa is sampled using the same protocol in = both woody and open (non-woody) patches. In addition the same experimental desig= n is used in all sites. Woody vegetation was previously removed to enable us to study patch characteristics with and without woody vegetation. Since grazin= g is practiced in most of Israel, its effect on species diversity was included in the monitoring. In half of the plots at each site grazing is excluded while= in the other half grazing is introduced. Overall there are four treatments assigned to each site (see Table 1): grazing-shrub removal (RG), no grazing-shrub removal (RX), no grazing-no shrub removal (UX), grazing-no sh= rub removal (UG).

 

Table 1: Classification of terms used for th= e four experimental treatments used in the MARAG study.

 

The MARAG project also emphasizes theoretical studies by developing conceptual and mathematical models. Profs Ehud Meron = and Moshe Shachak (BGU) developed models to explain the relationships among vegetation pattern formation, ecosystem function, species filtering and bio= mass production. The MARAG network is testing the models using field data relate= d to vegetation patterns and their effect on biodiversity. Dr. Yochai Carmel (Technion) is testing the vegetation patterns–diversity relationship using aerial photographs All of the data is managed by Prof. Ronen Kadmon (HUJI) and is available for synthesis to reveal  general patterns of biodiversity c= hanges along the rainfall gradient. The results are used to design ecosystem management models. The management part of the project is headed by Dr. Yeho= shua Shkedi (INPA), Prof. Avi Perevolotsky (ARO) and Dr. Eugene Ungar (ARO).

This project is about to expand to include management supporting research, environmental education research and additi= onal LTER sites. Below are details of the sites that are either part of the proj= ect or are being considered for inclusion in the network.

Table of Site Characteristics

1. Site name and location

Avdat, Central Negev, Israel, annual rainfall: 90 mm

 

Principal contact and institution

Head of LTER site: Dr. Bertrand Boeken=

The Wyler Department of Dryland Agriculture,<= /span>

The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research,

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,

Sede Boqer Campus,

Israel 84990

Email: bboeken@bgu.= ac.il

 

Location

Latitude 30° 47' N; longitude 34° 46' E; elevati= on 600-700 m; size 700 ha.

 

Principal biome/main communities

Arid shrub-steppes consisting of rock= y slopes and loessial ephemeral streambed= s and ancient agricultural terraces. Mean maximum summer temperature is 32 ºC; mean minimum winter temperature is 5 ºC. Vegetation is dominated by dwarf shrubs (= Hamada scoparia on plains, Artem= isia crassifolia and Zygophyllum dumosum on slopes).

 

Research topics

Ancient surface runoff agriculture; hydrolog= y of runoff; dryland agroforestry; population and community ecology of herbaceous plants and invertebrates; biodiversity and ecosystem management; ecosystem engineering and patch dynamics; food-web dynamics; watershed modeling; soil fauna dynamics.

 

History of site

The site was established in 1958 by the Hebr= ew University of Jerusalem. Livestock grazing has taken place in the area for thousands of years. Remains of ancient Nabatean runoff agriculture (ca. 0-3= 00 AD) in the form of terraces are still evident. Currently Bedouin inhabitants practice sedentary pastoralism with goats, sheep and camels. Livestock graz= ing has been excluded from parts of the site.

 

Data collected

 

2. Site name and location

Lehavim, Northern Negev, Israel, annual rainfall: 200 mm

 

 

Latitude 31° 25' N; longitude 34° 48' E; elevati= on 300-400 m; size 800 ha.

 

Principal contact and institution

Head of LTER site: Dr Eugene Ungar

Department of Natural Resources,

Agricultural Research Organization-Volcani Center, =

POB 6, Bet Dagan,

50250, Israel

Email: eugene@volcani.agri.gov.il

 

Principal biome/main communities

Semi-arid desert; shrub and grass steppes, r= ocky and loessial watersheds, dry riverbeds, rangeland.

 

Research topics

Animals and ecosystem functions; biodiversit= y and ecosystem functions; desertification; disturbances; ecosystem management; effects of grazing; landscape dynamics; nutrient cycling; plant community dynamics; primary production dynamics; remote sensing; spatial and temporal distribution of grazing; watershed hydrology, geomorphology and ecology.

 

History of site/types of data collected

The Lehavim site is a range management research station in the northern Negev, 14 km north of Beer Sheva. Before the establishment of the site in 1980 the area had been under grazing pressure for thousands of years. Since 1980= the area has been managed by the Ministry of Agriculture and the Jewish National Fund (JNF). In 1980, communal grazing by Bedouin sheep herds on the site was replaced by controlled grazing under moderate stocking rates. This was done= by fencing the entire area and allowing only two herders to use the area exclusively. Since 1980 the site has served as a site for demonstrating appropriate range and livestock management. In 1992 a network of fifty (10 = x 10 m) exclosures was established on the predominant habitats of the site, enab= ling monitoring of grazing impact and removal. In 1997 the area was declared par= t of the DEN (Dryland Ecosystem-management Network). The types of data collected include: changes in landscape mosaic; density, biomass and species diversit= y of annual plants in grazed and ungrazed areas; effects of different stocking r= ates on plant communities; soil fertilization; herd movements; organic matter and soil flows by surface runoff across the landscape; primary production dynam= ics; rainfall and soil moisture dynamics; runoff water generation and erosion; s= eed bank dynamics; spectral reflectance; and variations in annual plant species composition due to grazing. A meterological station operates at the site un= der the supervision of Dr. Eli Zaadi (ARO) (http://www.c= mc-amman.gov.jo/mems/CMC/Public/index.php). More information on the site can be found at

3. Site name and location

Sayeret Shaked Park, northern Negev, Israel, annual rainfall: 300 mm

 

Principal contact and institution<= /p>

Dr. Bertrand Boeken

The Wyler Department of Dryland Agriculture, The Jacob B= laustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Bo= qer Campus,

84990 Israel

Email: bboek= en@bgu.ac.il

 

Location

Latitude 31° 17' N; longitude 34° 37' E; elevation 200 m; size 300 ha.<= /o:p>

 

Principal biome/main communities

Semi-arid shrubland (shrub-grass steppe), ro= cky and loessial watersheds, ephemeral streams, loessial plains. Vegetation is dominated by dwarf shrubs (Noaea mucronata, Atractylis serratuloides = and Thymelea hirsuta). M= ean maximum summer temperature is 34 ºC, mean minimum winter temperat= ure 6 ºC.

 

Research topics

Vegetation, resource and landscape dynamics; biodiversity and ecosystem function; desertification; disturbances; ecosyst= em management; livestock grazing; nutrient cycling; organic matter dynamics; ecosystem engineering; remote sensing; watershed modeling.

 

History of site

The Sayeret Shaked site is an ecological par= k in the northern Negev near the town of Ofakim. Before the establishment of the par= k in 1987 the area had been under grazing pressure for thousands of years. Since 1987 the area has been managed by the JNF. Management includes livestock grazing, landscape alterations, runoff water harvesting and tree planting. Approximately 30 ha of the park is fenced to exclude livestock grazing and = is designated for research. From 1994 the area has been a demonstration site f= or the International Arid Lands Consortium. Since 1997 the area has been part = of DEN (Dryland Ecosystem-management Network, the Israeli LTER network).

 

Data collected

Meteorological monitoring (air and soil temp= , RH, wind velocity, rainfall and soil moisture – see http://www.middleeast.sandia.gov/); changes in landscape mosaics; density, biomass and species diversity and population dynamics of annual plants in natural, grazed, disturbed and mana= ged areas; shrub demography; dust and organic matter deposition; litter deposit= ion; nitrogen flux; movement of organic matter by surface runoff; recovery of cr= ust and shrub patches; runoff water generation and erosion from disturbed and undisturbed areas; seed bank dynamics; snail, ant and termite population dynamics; spectral reflectance.

 

4. Site name and location

Nizzanim, southern Mediterranean coast, Israel, annual rainfall: = 400 mm

Latitude 31^o 44'22"N; longitude:34^o 36'30"E; elevation 0-50 m; size 1900 ha.

 

Principal contact and institution

Head of LTER site:  Prof. Haim Tsoa= r - Geomorphology and Prof. Pua Bar (Kutiel) – Ecology,

Department of Geography and Environmental Development,

Ben-Gurion Universit= y of the Negev,

Beer-Sheva

84105, Israel

Email: tsoar@bgu.ac.il; kutiel@bgu.ac.il

 

Principal biome/main communities

Sand dunes (mobile, semi-stabilized and stab= ilized) within a Mediterranean climate (450-500 mm of rain per year). Shrubland dominated by Saharo-Arabian shrubs (Artemisia monosperma and Reta= ma Retama) accompanied by Mediterranean herbaceous species, some of which = are endemic.

=  

Research topics

Coastal dune geomorphology and ecology dynam= ics and their interactions; effect of change in land-use on dune morphology and dynamics; landscape changes; vegetation, animals (small mammals, reptiles, = arthropods)  and ecosystem functions; biodivers= ity; disturbances; ecosystem conservation, restoration and management; effect of vegetation removal (uprooting and grazing) on re-establishment of sand-lovi= ng species and sand mobility; bioindicator species; landscape dynamics; plant<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>  and animal community dynamics; GIS= and remote sensing; habitat definition and characterization (patterns); patchin= ess; scales.

&= yacute;     Titles of studies currently being conducted at Nizzanim sand dune site:

ý     Sustainable management of coastal dunes for biodiversity conservation.

ý     Conserving sand dunes and dune life: regional scientific inputs for effective management policies.

ý     The spread rate of the invasive plant Aca= cia saligna at Nizzanim Sand Park and its impact on the ecosystem (plant and animal communities).

ý     Ecology and biology of A. saligna seed bank under natural and managed conditions.

ý     The phenotypic/genotypic plasticity of the invasive plant Heteroteca subexillaris and its impact on sand dune ecosystems.

ý     The water regime at Nizzanim sand dunes as affected by biotic and abiotic processes.

=  

History of site

The sand dunes of Nizzanim were subjected to= human interference (firewood cutting, grazing, and plantations) for several decad= es in the second half of the 20^th century. Since then the area has = been protected on various levels, which has accelerated dune stabilization due to shrub encroachment. As a consequence, characteristic geomorphic features and plant and animal communities have changed. In 2006, 1900 out of 3000 ha of = sand dunes were declared as a nature reserve. The area is under the auspices of = the JNF (Jewish National Fund), INPA (Israel Nature & Parks Authority) and = The SPNI (Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel).

 

Data collected

 

5. Site name and location

= Adulam<= b>, Judean Hills, = Israel, annual rainfall: 450 mm

Latitude 31&de= g; 38' N; longitude 34° 56' E; elevation 400 m.

 

Principal contact and institution

Head of LTER site: Dr Yariv Malihi

District ecologist, Israel Nature & Parks Authority (INPA)

Email: yariv.m@npa.org.il

 

Principal biome/main communities

Dry Mediterranean climate - average annual r= ainfall 400 mm with 20.5 °C average temperature. Low trees, mainly Quercus Calliprinos and Pistacia Palaes= tina with dense shrubs of Phillyrea latifolia and Pistacia lentiscus on Eocene limestone= . 

Research topics

Ecosystem functions; biodiversity; ecosystem management; effect of grazing and plant removal on species diversity; plant community dynamics; primary production dynamics.

 

History of site/types of data collected

The Adulam site is situated in the western p= art of the Judean Hills, 30 km southwest of Jerusalem. Before the declaration of Adulam as a nature reserve in 1994, the area had been under grazing pressure for thousands of years. Since 1994 the area has been managed by the INPA and communal grazing by Bedouin sheep herds on the site was replaced by control= led grazing under moderate rates. The research site became a part of the Israeli LTER project in 2003.

The research scheme is 12 plots of 45x45 met= ers, six on a northern slope and six on a southern slope. The treatments include: pl= ant removal, grazing, and a combination of grazing and plant removal and contro= l.

 

6. Site name and location

Ramat Hanadiv, Southern Mt. Carmel, Israel, Annu= al rainfall: 600 mm

Latitude 32° 33' N; longitude 34° 56' E; elevati= on 120 m (max); size 500 ha.

 

Principal contact and institution

Head of LTER site:  Prof. Avi Perevolotsky,

Department of Natural Resources,

Agricultural Research Organization-Volcani Center, =

POB 6, Bet Dagan

50250, Israel

Email: avi@agri.gov.il

 

Research director: Liat Hadar,

Ramat Hanadiv Nature Park,

P.O.B 325, Zichron Ya'acov

30900, Israel

Email:

 

Principal biome/main communities

Mediterranean garrigue, Mediterranean maquis= , open rangelands, planted pine and cypress groves, rocky cliffs, dry riverbeds, spring, orchard, cultivated garden.

 

Research topics

Ecosystem management; effect of cattle and g= oat grazing; effect of shrub clearing and thinning; shrub encroachment; biodiversity and population dynamics of selected animal groups as bio-indicators: songbirds, butterflies, chukars, gazelles, snails; biodiver= sity of herbaceous plant community; biodiversity and management; landscape dynam= ics; historical mapping of woody vegetation; management for rare species; manage= ment for multi-purpose use; pine colonization.

 

History of site/types of data collected

The Ramat Hanadiv LTER site is located in the Southern part of Mt. C= armel, in the Mediterranean region of Israel. The park covers an area of 500 hecta= res, and is patchy in nature and rich in biological diversity.=

The area is covered by garrigue communities, dominated by the moderate-sized sh= rubs Phillyrea media, Pistacia lentiscus, Calycotome villosa and the dwarf s= hrub Sarcopoterium spinosum. It has experienced a long history of human u= sage and impact, including grazing and clearing activities. The park was fenced = in 1950 and grazing was excluded for 40 years. The area was burnt by a wild-fi= re in 1980. In 1992, a fuel break zone was established in the park to reduce f= ire damage and distribution.

Technically the private property of the Rothschild family, the area was designated by t= he Rothschild Foundation twenty years ago for public use, education and ecolog= ical research. However, during these twenty years, mostly short-term scientific research, both applied and pure, has been carried out in the park. Today, t= he orientation is towards long-term thinking and planning, including an LTER s= ite established in 2003.

The types of data collected (on a routine basis) include: herbaceous community diversity and woody vegetation structure, in different habitats and grazing regimes; population dynamics and habitat preferences of gazelles, wild boar= s, jackals, mongoose and chukars; species diversity and habitat preferences of butterflies, songbirds and snails; monitoring re-introduced raptors and roe deer.

The park is a distinctive example in Israel of a well-investigated and carefully-managed natural area. As such, it has become a model for the conservation, rehabilitation and management of Mediterranean ecosystems in Israel.

 

7. Site name and location

 

Jerusalem,  Kislon wadi, Kdoshim forest, Israel, annual rainfall: 700 mm

 

Latitude N, longitude E, elevation  m; size  ha.<= /o:p>

 

Principal contact and institution

Hanoch Tzoref (JNF)

 

 

Principal biome/main communities

Man-made pine forest.

 

Research topics

Biodiversity conservation; primary productiv= ity; regrowth; ecosystem services; forest management; modeling.  

 

History of site

This forest is about 45 years old. It has a = history of fires, snowfalls, tree cutting and natural regrowth of native Mediterran= ean flora.